1. INTRODUCTION

A. Society’s View of the Purpose of Prison Changes

1. The substantial increase in crime rates beginning in the 1960's and lasting into the 1990's increased the public’s fear of being victimized hardened attitudes toward punishment. This resulted in pressure to imprison more offenders despite a 5 year drop in the crime index from 1991 to 1998.

2. This fear of crime has prompted:

a. Strong pressures on lawmakers to get tougher on crime
b. Statutes mandating increased rates of incarceration and longer sentences - "three strikes and you’re out".
c. "Truth-in-sentencing" laws, mandating offenders serve 85% of sentence.
d. Changes in handling of habitual and violent juvenile offenders.
e. The building of more prisons.

3. Prison populations rose from about 329,821 in 1980 to approximately 2,000,000,000 by the end of 20^th century.

A. Overcrowding

1. Causes

a. Hardening attitudes of the public in regard to convicted offenders
   i. From 1990 to 1997, the average time served rose from 22 months to 27 months. (See, Table 10.1, page 225)
   ii. The drop in inmate release rates from 37% in 1991 to 31.2% in 1997.

b. Societal Changes
   i. "Baby Boomers", particularly males born 1945 - 1960 reached their most crime prone age(s) in the 1960's and 1970's.
   ii. Rise of the "drug culture" with the "Baby Boomers"
   iii. Many poor and minority youth became increasingly alienated and angry. Their distrust of adults and authority led to more antisocial behavior which in turn was fed by the breakdown of family units which guaranteed that more and more adolescents would have less and less adult supervision.
   iv. At the same time more people were being sent to prison for longer periods (state prisons operating at 13% over capacity; federal prisons operating at 27% over capacity) while courts were limiting the number of inmates a facility could house.

c. Overcrowding Had Numerous Consequences
   i. Institutional problems
     1. Space deficits and increased maintenance problems
     2. #9; Increased inmate idleness
     3. Inadequate supervision of inmates by officials - too many prisoners, too few guards
     4. Increased staff turnover
   ii. Inmate problems (See, page 225)

B The Inmate Racial Divide

1. A Major Proportion Of Prison Population Growth Consisted Of African Americans
    a. In 1997, Black males represented about 6% of the population they constituted almost 50% of the inmate population.
    b. Several Factors Led To Increases In The Proportion Of African American Inmates -
     i. Seriousness of crimes
     ii. Extensive prior criminal records
     iii. Participation in street level drug dealing
     iv. Socioeconomic conditions; proportion of poor Blacks rose by 24%between 1970 and 1980, whereas the proportion of poor whites fell by 20%.
     v. Blacks, as a group, lost their fear of whites and in fact found that whites feared them
     vi. The disappearance of multiple class Black neighborhood. Those who could moved out leaving largely poor, lower class individuals.
     vii. The easy availability of firearms
   c. Black’s bring their ghetto solidarity to prison - "homeboys"; they also respond to the religious affiliations, such as the Muslims.

2. Hispanics
   a. Strong family orientation - dependency for nurturing and support influences their identity and self-esteem
   b. Barrio culture carried into prison. Gangs are surrogate families. Territorial conflicts between gangs transferred into prison as well as conflicts over drug trafficking.

3. Whites
   a. More likely than Blacks/Hispanics to blame themselves for being imprisoned
   b. Fear of Blacks/Hispanics leads many into protective custody
   c. If not racially prejudiced upon entry, violence and hostility tends to create this prejudice.
   d. Whites have little class or ethnic consciousness. Fear and prejudice led to development of white-supremacist, right-wing, sometimes "religiously" based, militant groups such as the Aryan Brotherhood.

A. Divisiveness A Major Characteristic Of Contemporary Prisons

1. Driven by extreme hatred and distrust among racial and ethnic groups. One effect of racial tension has been informal segregation. (See, Race relations in Prison, page 228)
2. The criminal orientation of various inmates who now comprise the inmate population - bikers/dopers and dealers/violent predators/state-raised kids/street gang members.

B. Prison Pro-Social Organizations

1. Types (See, Table 10.2, page 229)
   a. Ethnic/Racial
   b. Religious
   c. Self-Help
   d. Special Interest

C. The Changing Convict Code

1. The new prison subculture is characterized by:
   a. A disrespect for authority
   b. Illiteracy
   c. Welfare mentality - "I am a victim"

2. 3 major changes in the convict code:
    a. Toughness has become a central focus of inmate identity
    b. Loyalty has changed from the entire inmate population to one’s group
    c. New emphasis on resorting to extreme violence to protect or maintain self-respect and punish snitches
      i. This ready resort to violence is blamed in part on the large number of state-raised youth in prisons

D. Social Roles and Adaptations

1. State-raised youth, also know as HOGS, OUTLAWS, CONVICTS.
2. Independents
   a. Prop friendships
3. Withdrawal

A. The Legal Economic System

1. Inmates obtain money through gifts from family; wages for work assignments; government-transfer payments (G.I. Bill/Social Security/Pensions); sale of crafts. (See, Table 10.3, page 238)

2. Anecdotal information suggests that an inmate would need $20.00 - $40.00 monthly to live above prison subsistence level.

B. The Illegal Economy Attempts To Fill The Void

1. The sub-rosa, or illegal, inmate economy survives because it provides goods and services not available through normal channels. It satisfies inmates’ needs and contributes to their psychological well being. Inmates can use cigarettes, candy, money, or barter items or favors

C. Contraband

1. CONTRABAND: Anything/items that are declared illegal or off-limits to inmates by prison authorities

A. Various Inmate Sexual Roles (241)

2.  Victim Characteristics (241 - 243)